Cities and the Quest to Host the Olympics Games

The first modern Olympics was held in Athens, Greece, in 1896. Since then, the Olympic Games have been held more than 50 times in cities in Europe, Asia, and North America. Although the first Olympic events were modest affairs, today they are multibillion-dollar events that require years of planning and politicking.   How an Olympic City Is Chosen The Winter and Summer Olympics are governed by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). This multinational organization chooses the host cities. The process begins nine years before the games are to be held when cities can begin lobbying the IOC. Over the next three years, each delegation must meet a series of goals to demonstrate that they have (or will have) the infrastructure and funding in place to host a successful Olympics. At the end of the three-year period, the IOCs member states vote on the finalist.  Not all cities that want to host the games make it to this point in the bidding process, however. For example, Doha,  Qatar, and Baku,  Azerbaijan,  two  of the five cities seeking the 2020 Summer Olympics, were eliminated by the IOC midway through the selection process. Only Istanbul, Madrid, and Paris were finalists; Paris won. Even if a city is awarded the games, that doesnt mean thats where the Olympics will take place. Denver made a successful bid to host the 1976 Winter Olympics in 1970, but it wasnt long before local political leaders began rallying against the event, citing the cost and potential environmental impact. In 1972, the Denver Olympic bid had been sidelined, and the games were awarded to Innsbruck, Austria, instead. Fun Facts About Host Cities The Olympics have been held in more than 40 cities since the first modern games were held. Here is some more trivia about the Olympics and their hosts.   The first modern Summer Olympics in Athens in 1896 took place just four years after Frenchman  Pierre de Coubertin  proposed them. The event featured only about 250 athletes from 13 nations competing in nine sports.The first Winter Olympics was held in Chamonix, France, in 1924. Sixteen nations competed that year, with just five sports total.The Summer and Winter Games were held every four years in the same year. In 1992, the IOC altered the schedule so that they would alternate every two years.  Seven cities have hosted the Olympic Games more than once: Athens; Paris; London; St. Moritz, Switzerland; Lake Placid, New York; Los Angeles; and Innsbruck, Austria.London is the only city to have hosted the Olympics three times. Paris will become the next city to do so when it hosts the 2024 Summer Games.Beijing, which hosted the Summer Olympics in 2008, will host the Winter Olympics in 2020, making it the first city to do so.The U.S. has hosted eight Olympic Games, more than any oth er nation. It will next host the Summer Olympics in Los Angeles in 2028.Brazil is the only nation in South America to have hosted the Olympics. Africa is the only continent not to have hosted the Games.World War I prevented the 1916 Olympics from being held in Berlin. World War II  forced the cancellation of Olympics scheduled for Tokyo; London; Sapporo, Japan; and  Cortina dAmpezzo, Italy.The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia, which cost an estimated $51 billion, was the most expensive Games of all time.   Summer Olympic Games Sites 1896: Athens, Greece1900: Paris, France1904: St. Louis, United States1908: London, United Kingdom1912: Stockholm, Sweden1916: Scheduled for Berlin, Germany1920: Antwerp, Belgium1924: Paris, France1928: Amsterdam, Netherlands1932: Los Angeles, United States1936: Berlin, Germany1940: Scheduled for Tokyo, Japan1944: Scheduled for London, United Kingdom1948: London, United Kingdom1952: Helsinki, Finland1956: Melbourne, Australia1960: Rome, Italy1964: Tokyo, Japan1968: Mexico City, Mexico1972: Munich, West Germany (now Germany)1976: Montreal, Canada1980: Moscow, U.S.S.R. (now Russia)1984: Los Angeles, United States1988: Seoul, South Korea1992: Barcelona, Spain1996: Atlanta, United States2000: Sydney, Australia2004: Athens, Greece2008: Beijing, China2012: London, United Kingdom2016: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil2020: Tokyo, Japan Winter Olympic Games Sites 1924: Chamonix, France1928: St. Moritz, Switzerland1932: Lake Placid, New York, United States1936: Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany1940: Scheduled for Sapporo, Japan1944: Scheduled for Cortina dAmpezzo, Italy1948: St. Moritz, Switzerland1952: Oslo, Norway1956: Cortina dAmpezzo, Italy1960: Squaw Valley, California, United States1964: Innsbruck, Austria1968: Grenoble, France1972:  Sapporo, Japan1976:  Innsbruck, Austria1980: Lake Placid, New York, United States1984: Sarajevo, Yugoslavia (now Bosnia and Herzegovina)1988: Calgary, Alberta, Canada1992: Albertville, France1994: Lillehammer, Norway1998: Nagano, Japan2002: Salt Lake City, Utah, United States2006: Torino (Turin), Italy2010: Vancouver, Canada2014: Sochi, Russia2018: Pyeongchang, South Korea2022: Beijing, China

Essay on A Critical Analysis of Lies My Teacher Told Me

A Critical Analysis of:Lies My Teacher Told Me It would be better not to know so many things than to know so many things which are not so. -FELIX OKOYE Out of all forms of literature currently known to man, educational textbooks are arguably the least interesting. On top of being incredibly boring, textbooks, especially American history ones, neglect to include the entirety of the information that it should. Because American history textbooks wish only to paint the United States in a bright light, the authors opt to leave out anything that may hurt its image. What Lies My Teacher Told Me attempts to do is lay out uncommonly known facts for the misinformed history students of today.†¦show more content†¦Then, through the content of the rest of his book, he proves himself to be hypocritical by having laid down an even more boring account of American history. While he makes a respectable attempt by bringing forth potentially interesting flaws in history, it really doesnt compensate for how disorganized the book is. Loewens first chapter to actually contain content about history deals with Americans misinformed beliefs about apparent American heroes. He focuses primarily on Helen Keller and Woodrow Wilson, both of which have little known facts about them that may impede on their statuses as heroes. While informing his readers that Keller was a radical socialist who supported the USSR and that Wilson led many motiveless invasions of Latin American countries is, in itself, interesting information to know. However, Loewen constantly jumps back and forth between the two heroes and their descriptions, causing him to not only fail at accurately portraying his message, but also send the reader into a boundless pit of confusion which only gets worse as the book progresses. Next up for this abomination of literature are two chapters about the frequently discussed myths of the first settlers of America.Show MoreRelatedComparison Essay1541 Words   |  7 Pagesauthority in the class room. In his essay, he says that all the power belongs to the teacher. Richard Rodriguez’s essay â€Å"the achievement of desire† he states that the power belongs to the student. In many ways, these two influential writers are similar and at the same time have completely different views about education and the education system. Rodriguez spoke of being filled with the knowledge of his teachers and knowledge from reading what he called his â€Å"important† books, despite being consideredRead MoreEssay about School Violence1704 Words   |  7 Pagesschools? 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This paper will elaborate on this concept, and how it relates to my wicked problem of ageism in modern culture, as wellRead MoreThis Boys Life Critical Analysis Essay1965 Words   |  8 PagesCritical Analysis- A Struggle with Identity This Boys Life is the autobiographical account of teenager. Toby and his mothers search for financial stability and a peaceful life. Toby’s family was split down the middle as a child, leaving his father and older brother on the East Coast and, for the most part, uninvolved in Toby’s life. The story begins when Toby and his mother, Rosemary, leave her abusive boyfriend in Florida to take their chances at becoming rich on uranium mines in Utah. They areRead MoreAlternative Learning Systems9735 Words   |  39 Pagesconcepts of doing gender, interaction order, and emotion work to the prison classroom. Based on their analysis, the authors examine the challenges and opportunities for critical education in prison. They aimed to use their teaching efforts to reach out to marginalized students and develop students’ sociological imaginations to assist them through the challenges of confinement and reentry. The authors’ analysis has implications for both prison ed ucation and higher education more broadly. They conclude thatRead More11 Types of Essay4025 Words   |  17 PagesESSAY Emily Jenkins I grew up in the Boston area in the 1970s. My mother was a pre-school teacher and my father a playwright. I remember visiting my mothers classroom and reading to the children there; even more vividly, I remember sitting in the back row of theater after theater, watching rehearsals – seeing stories come to life. My mother read me countless picture books, but at my fathers house there wasnt much of that nature. He read me what was at hand: Alices Adventures in Wonderland, HuckleberryRead More Unifying Dualism of Women in Society Essay4418 Words   |  18 Pagessociety, like the subject position of teacher, to somehow deal with this subject-object dualism.How did this dualism come about?What are its consequences?And finally, how can women, specifically women educators in composition studies, carve out a space for themselves so that the à ¬dialectical unityà ® of being both a woman and an intellectual* is preserved?This paper will attempt to address those questions, through the oretical application, through brief historical analysis, and most importantly, via the narratives

Code Hero free essay sample

Closely related to the concept of stoicism is the Code Hero, a phrase used to describe the main character in many of Hemingways novels. Some critics regard Santiago as the finest, most developed example of these code heroes. In this phrase, code means a set of rules or guidelines for conduct. In Hemingways code, the principal ideals are honor, courage, and endurance in a life of stress, misfortune, and pain. Often in Hemingways stories, the heros world is violent and disorderly; moreover, the violence and disorder seem to win. The code dictates that the hero act honorably in the midst of what will be a losing battle. In doing so he finds fulfillment: he becomes a man or proves his manhood and his worth. The phrase grace under pressure is often used to describe the conduct of the code hero. Hemingway defined the Code Hero as a man who lives correctly, following the ideals of honor, courage and endurance in a world that is sometimes chaotic, often stressful, and always painful. He measures himself by how well he handles the difficult situations that life throws at him. In the end the Code Hero will lose because we are all mortal, but the true measure is how a person faces death. He believes in Nada, a Spanish word meaning nothing. Along with this, there is no after life. The Code Hero is typically an individualist and free-willed. He never shows emotions; showing emotions and having a commitment to women shows weakness. Qualities such as bravery, adventuresome and travel also define the Code Hero. Ironically, the code hero can also be afraid of the dark in that it symbolizes the void, the abyss, the nothingness (nada) that comes with death. However, once he faces death bravely and becomes a man he must continue the struggle and constantly prove himself to retain his manhood. The code hero or heroine (like Catherine Barkley) must perform his or her work well to create a kind of personal meaning amidst the greater meaninglessness. Still, life is filled with misfortunes, and a code hero is known by how he endures those misfortunes. Ultimately, the code hero will lose in his conflict with life because he will die. But all that matters is how one faces death. In fact, one should court death, in the bull ring, on the battlefield, against big fish, because facing death teaches us how to live. Along with this, the code hero must create and follow certain rituals regarding death because those rituals help us. The bullfighter must have grace and must make his kills clean. He must face noble animals. He must put on his suit a certain way. Similarly, a fisherman shouldnt go out too far. He should respect the boundaries the fish have established for fishermen. Religion is helpful only in that it provides us with rituals. But religions are wrong when they promise life after death. If an individual faces death bravely, then he becomes a man, but he must repeat the process, constantly proving himself, until the ultimate defeat. The Hemingway man was a man’s man. He was a man involved in a great deal of drinking. He was a man who moved from one love affair to another, who participated in wild game hunting, who enjoyed bullfights, who was involved in all of the so-called manly activities, which the typical American male did not participate in. Throughout many of Hemingway’s novels the code hero acts in a manner which allowed the critic to formulate a particular code. He does not talk about what he believes in. †¢ He is man of action rather than a man of theory. Behind the formulation of this concept of the hero lies the basic disillusionment brought about by the First World War. The sensitive man came to the realization that the old concepts and the old values embedded in Christianity and other ethical systems of the western world had not served to save mankind from the catastrophe inherent in the World War. A basis for all of the actions of all Hemingway code heroes is the concept of death. The idea of death lies behind all of the character’s actions in Hemingway novels. HEMINGWAYS HERO The Hemingway Hero is defined by a static set of characteristics. These characteristics remain essentially the same throughout all of Hemingways works. The Hemingway Hero is always courageous, confident, and introspective. He does not let his fears get to him. The Hemingway Hero is expressed differently in each of his novels, though. Sometimes he is young, and sometimes old. In Hemingways novels â€Å"The Nick Adams Stories† and â€Å"Old Man and the Sea†, the Hero is introduced differently. In â€Å"The Nick Adams Stories†, Nick Adams begins as a naive, young boy then becomes the Hero within the view of the reader as his early life and the events that influenced his life most are the entirety of this memoir-style novel. In â€Å"Old Man and the Sea’, though, the old man does not develop into a hero. Santiago begins as an old man who has already attained the Heroic qualities that he will demonstrate intentionally throughout the rest of the story. This is a unique and remarkable approach, and after the failure of his previous book, certainly a risky one. The book is not a portrait; it is not static, despite that the main characters morals – his ideals- never really change. A reader of his previous works might feel that they have seen these characteristics in Hemingways works before. Nick, the main character in â€Å"The Nick Adams Stories†, is in many ways is like Hemingway himself. Setting up camp and fishing and cooking by himself, Nick lifts his spirits by creating his own personal utopia. He remains and is static, unchanging example of Hemingways idealistic of heroism. In fact, Nick Adams is probably the most autobiographical of Hemingway’s characters. Instead he relied, like Nick Adams, on finding his own escape from reality, making his own â€Å"good place†. Like Nick Adams, Hemingway found nature to be the best escape for him from his troubled world. The Hemingway Hero was not an original invention of his. The Hero, universally, expresses one key quality: Grace Under Pressure (GUP). Nick travels into the forests of northern Michigan to find a release from the agony and emotional wounds the war has left him. Iceberg Theory The Iceberg Theory (also known as the theory of omission) is the writing style of American writer Ernest Hemingway. Hemingway began his writing career as a reporter. Journalistic writing, particularly for newspapers, focuses only on events being reported, omitting superfluous and extraneous matter. When he became a writer of short stories, he retained this minimalistic style, focusing on surface elements without explicitly discussing the underlying themes. Hemingway believed the true meaning of a piece of writing should not be evident from the surface story, rather, the crux of the story lies below the surface and should be allowed to shine through.

The Importance of Business Ethics Essay Sample free essay sample

Business moralss exemplifies all rules and criterions that guide our behaviour in the concern universe. Nowadays. concern moralss are two major words non taken earnestly. [ In fact. there has been a ] †¦series of major fiscal dirts affecting Enron. Tyco International. HealthSouth. Adelphia Communications. WorldCom. Global Crossing. Rite Aid ( Garrison. Eric. A ; Brewer. 2008 ) to include Lehman Brothers. AIG. M [ a ] doff. [ merely ] to call a few ( Bathula A ; Gaur. 2011 ) for unethical behaviour. My inquiry is how can these executives be so unethical? It is non like anyone of us. at one point or another. has faced ethical determinations on a day-to-day footing. Yet. we do non perpetrate offenses as these persons have done so. Does it intend concern moralss could take to determination devising. every bit far as. is it on a personal or a group duty degree and what are the effects to such unethical behaviours. Ethical motives tend to be indispensable as a portion of our civilization but people separate their personal and concern moralss whereas they should be the same. We will write a custom essay sample on The Importance of Business Ethics Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There has been a long-standing argument among philosophers and psychologists ( among other bookmans ) as to what causes people to move the manner they do. and how [ it influences ] †¦their behaviour ( Pendse. 2012 ) . [ Many ] suggest that the argument can be categorized in footings of those who believe in ‘internal forces’ such as a person’s parental upbringing. instruction. and personality as the primary causes of their behaviour. and others who believe that behaviour is chiefly affected by ‘external forces’ that operate on the individual ( Pendse. 2012 ) . There are several persons that say that personal is personal and work is work but many do non recognize that their moralss defines their ain features. On a separate position of concern moralss. a persons’ behaviour is sometimes defined as a group personality which diminishes an individuals’ good character and changes the situational forces runing on that individual. Harmonizing to the ‘bad barrels’ statement. something in the organisational environment poisons†¦good apples [ which finally ] properties unethical behaviour in the organisation to a few unsavoury persons ( Pendse. 2012 ) . In such instances. people tend to concentrate on their ain personal involvement as they have different ends from the company where it leads many to execute unethical picks. Business ethics is so thought to be on a personal duty degree. So. how can we avoid unethical behaviours and what would be its effects? One of the cardinal situational/organizational factors that significantly influence ethical behaviour is the support ( or deficiency of support ) for old ethical behaviour ( Pendse. 2012 ) . Ethic jeopardies produces chance. agencies and motor which many have found that penalty. . was expected. . [ ; nevertheless. it ] did non cut down unethical behaviour ( Pendse. 2012 ) . The support construction in a state of affairs can be so powerful that if support is inadvertently given for unsought behaviour. such unwanted behaviour will happen even if persons know that they should act otherwise ( Pendse. 2012 ) . Due to hapless judgements. there is frequently a connexion between unethical and illegal behaviour in an organisation which leads to corruptness. fraud. and other condemnable discourtesies. In decision. concern moralss is the standard usher to our behaviour in both personal and in the concern universe. We need to take into consideration that concern moralss is a personal duty because it defines our upbringing every bit good as how we let the societal environment control each one of us. If we don’t follow these criterion regulations and do unethical picks. there will be serious effects which will later impact your life. Persons should use moralss to both countries in order to be successful because. after all. concern moralss is what defines our e thical motives and value features. Mentions Bathula. H. . A ; Gaur. S. S. ( 2011. December ) . Teaching Ethical motives to International Business Students: Impact. response and waies. Retrieved from Centre for Research in International Education ( CRIE ) : hypertext transfer protocol: //www. crie. org. nz/papers. htm Garrison. R. . Eric. N. . A ; Brewer. P. ( 2008 ) . McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Retrieved from Managerial Accounting: hypertext transfer protocol: //highered. mcgraw-hill. com/sites/0073526703/student_view0/ebook/chapter1/chbody1/the_importance_of_ethics_in_business. hypertext markup language Pendse. S. ( 2012 ) . Ethical Hazards: A Motive. Means. and Opportunity Approach to Curbing. Journal of Business Ethics. 265.

What is Patriotism Essay Example For Students

What is Patriotism Essay What is Patriotism Essay Patriotism according to Merriam Webster is defined as devotion or love for ones country. I believe this definition does not capture the true essence of the meaning of patriotism. This definition would be outstanding, if there were no other conditions factored in this complex equation, but it seems that patriotism is a double edge sword. So often more a persons loves their country, the more they hate every one who is not of their country. In other words they tend to become close-minded toward other cultures. We will write a custom essay on What is Patriotism specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now A prime example is the tragic incident on September 11; it provoked patriotism worldwide. It was not only Americans rising out of the shadows to lend a helping hand to his brother, but other nations showing support. Patriotism also has an ugly side. Through the attack patriotism rose through out the extreme Muslim community supporting the terrorism attacks on the Untied states declaring that Americans deserved what had happen. Through patriotism many people had contempt for any American with Middle East heritage, no matter how strong their patriotism to the states was.. The only difference between on form of patriotism and the other is a matter of degree. So how do we determine what side of the sword it is? We cant, because patriotism is a point of view. The more extreme it is, the worst its gets and that when it become an us or them scenario. Being a proud American believing in the good of the society is one thing, but being willing to kill others to further the goals of my country is another. Not all patriotism that because a bloody is bad; many civil revolutions all over the world have sacrifice for the promotion of equality and the rights and continue to so to this day. This further muddies the waters; patriotism is not cut-anddry as Webster makes it. . What is Patriotism Essay Example For Students What is Patriotism Essay What is Patriotism Essay Patriotism according to Merriam Webster is defined as devotion or love for ones country. I believe this definition does not capture the true essence of the meaning of patriotism. This definition would be outstanding, if there were no other conditions factored in this complex equation, but it seems that patriotism is a double edge sword. So often more a persons loves their country, the more they hate every one who is not of their country. In other words they tend to become close-minded toward other cultures. We will write a custom essay on What is Patriotism specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now A prime example is the tragic incident on September 11; it provoked patriotism worldwide. It was not only Americans rising out of the shadows to lend a helping hand to his brother, but other nations showing support. Patriotism also has an ugly side. Through the attack patriotism rose through out the extreme Muslim community supporting the terrorism attacks on the Untied states declaring that Americans deserved what had happen. Through patriotism many people had contempt for any American with Middle East heritage, no matter how strong their patriotism to the states was.. The only difference between on form of patriotism and the other is a matter of degree. So how do we determine what side of the sword it is? We cant, because patriotism is a point of view. The more extreme it is, the worst its gets and that when it become an us or them scenario. Being a proud American believing in the good of the society is one thing, but being willing to kill others to further the goals of my country is another. Not all patriotism that because a bloody is bad; many civil revolutions all over the world have sacrifice for the promotion of equality and the rights and continue to so to this day. This further muddies the waters; patriotism is not cut-anddry as Webster makes it. Words / Pages : 315 / 24 .

The scope of the doctrine and remedies for frustration of contract in English law Essays

The scope of the doctrine and remedies for frustration of contract in English law Essays The scope of the doctrine and remedies for frustration of contract in English law Paper The scope of the doctrine and remedies for frustration of contract in English law Paper Essay Topic: Law The courts have interpreted the scope of the doctrine of frustration narrowly, in accordance with the principle pacta sunt servanda agreements must be kept. If the courts readily held that a contract was frustrated, it would cast significant doubt on an array of agreements that make commerical enterprise possible. As Lord Radcliffe advised in Davis Contractors Ltd v Fareham UDC, [f]rustration is not to be lightly invoked as the dissolvent of a contract.i This discussion will first examine the underlying reasons for the narrowness of the doctrine before considering the specific limitations. Here it will be argued that in some instances the courts decisions have been inconsistent and in others they have been unduly harsh. The following part of the discussion will examine the remedies available to parties of a frustrated contract, as found under the Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act 1943. The deficiencies in the statute will be explored, amongst them ambiguity, which has led to the rare use of the Act. Instead, parties have opted to draft out the Act and include provisional clauses of their own. These force majeure and hardship clauses provide for a solution if a supervening event occurs which makes it impossible or more onerous for one party to perform. With the unsatisfactory state of the law governing frustration, it will be posited that these clauses are vital to retain an element of certainty in commercial contracting. The scope of the doctrine of frustration Contract law is founded on the principle that liablity for non-performance is strict. While this seems particularly severe, it is substantiated with the belief that parties receive valuable consideration for taking risks. The allocation of risks provides a major function of the law of contract: it enables individuals and corporations to plan for the future with a moderate degree of certainty and hence to maximise their freedom of action.ii A contract can only be frustrated when performance becomes impossible, or a supervening event takes place that would make performance radically different to that which was contracted to by the parties. If frustration is sufficiently pled, its result is to bring the contract to an end. Given this drastic outcome, the courts have interpreted the scope of the doctrine narrowly in order to preserve the sanctity of contract.iii Paradine v Jane is most frequently cited to demonstrate this: When a party by his own contract creates a duty or charge upon himself, he is bound to make it good, if he may, notwithstanding any accident by inevitable necessity, because he might have provided against it by his contract.iv Furthermore, if a party feels that they would be unable to perform if a supervening event occurs, they should provide for it in the contract. Many supervening events that can impede performance are foreseeable and parties should construct their contracts accordingly. There are several circumstances that may qualify for discharging the contract on grounds of frustration. These include the subject matter of the contract being destroyed; illness or incapacity of a contracting party; the non-occurrence of an event that formed the foundation of the contract; supervening illegality.v It is certainly not a rule that these circumstances will frustrate a contract. As Lord Sumner stated in Bank Line Ltd v Arthur Capel and Co, ultimately the frustration of an adventure depends on the facts of each case.vi There are three main limitations to the doctrine. Firstly, if there are provisions in the contract that provide for a solution if an event occurs, then an argument based on frustration is unlikely to be entertained as the parties have already provided for the occurrence.vii Secondly, if the event is foreseeable, the parties are unable to avail of the doctrine of frustration. In Amalgamated Investment and Property Co Ltd v John Walker Sons Ltdviii the claimants sought to set aside a contract for sale of a property, when they found that a day after they had signed the contract, the property became listed and could not be redeveloped. This reduced the value of the property by approximately 90%. The court held that the contract was not frustrated because the claimants were aware of the risk, as evidenced by a pre-contract enquiry as to whether the building could be listed. The supervening event did not fulfill the test set by Lord Radcliffe in Davis Contractors Ltd v Fareham UDCix it did not render [the performance] a thing radically different from that which was undertaken by the contract.x In Krell v Henryxi Vaughan Williams LJ expressed the foreseeability test in terms of whether the event was anticipated or not. Despite the logic of this proposition, it has not been without challenge. In The Eugenia, Lord Denning stated that: It has frequently been said that the doctrine of frustration only applies when the new situation is unforeseen or unexpected or uncontemplated, as if that were an essential feature. But it is not so.xii In stating this, Lord Denning relied upon the judgement in WJ Tatem Ltd v Gamboaxiii where a charterparty was held to be frustrated, even though it was foreseeable that the ship would be seized. It is difficult to reconcile these judgements with previous ones that have been decided, and it is indeterminable as to how future courts will rule on this test. A third limitation on the doctrine of frustration is if the event is self-induced. In Taylor v Caldwell, Blackburn J stated that frustration applied where performance had become impossible without default of the contractor.xiv The way in which the courts have interpreted a self-induced event is not free of controversy. In J Lauritzen AIS v Wijsmuller BV The Super Servant Two Bingham LJ stated that frustration had to arise from some outside event.xv In this case, the defendant contracted to transport an oil rig with either the Super Servant One or the Super Servant Two carrier. The defendant intended to use the latter, but it sank, and the Super Servant One had been allocated to other contracts. The Court of Appeal held that the contract was not brought to an end because of the sinking of Super Servant Two, but because of the defendants election not to use Super Servant One, therefore the contract was not frustrated. Treitel has criticized the reasoning of this judgement on the grounds that after the loss of the ship, it became impossible for the defendants to perform all its contracts during the period in question with only one operable carrier. Treitel further argues that in such a circumstance, where a party has entered into a number of contracts with other parties, and a supervening event does not permit him to satsify all those contracts, he can, provided he acts reasonably, elect to perform some of the contracts, and claim that the others have been frustrated by the event.xvi This argument certainly has merit and would lead to a far more just result than that decided by the court. The Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act 1943 In cases where a contract was frustrated, the common law was ill-equipped to provide a remedy. This lead to unjust decisions, such as Chandler v Websterxvii where a contract was frustrated but the aggrieved party was still liable to pay. The rights of the parties were determined solely on when the obligation to pay arose before or after the frustrating event. If they arose before, then there was still an obligation to pay, regardless of whether there had been a total failure of consideration. In 1943, the Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act [hereinafter the Act] was passed primarily to resolve this situation.xviii Shortly before the enactment of the Act, the House of Lords reversed Chandler in the case of Fibrosa Spolka Akcyjna v Fairbairn Lawson Combe Barbour Ltd.xix Money paid before the event was recoverable when there was a total failure of consideration. This was an improvement in the state of the common law, but it was still not satisfactory as it did not allow the payer to recover money where there was only a partial failure of consideration, and furthermore, the payee could not set off expenses that he legitimately incurred. Under s.1(2) of the Act, money paid before the frustrating event is recoverable and money payable before the event ceases to be payable, subject to legitimate expenses incurred before the event. Section 1(3) further provides that if one party has derived a valuable benefit from anything done by the other party, then the judge may order that party to pay a sum in respect of it. In BP v Hunt, Goff J stated that the fundamental principle underlying the Act itself is prevention of the unjust enrichment of either party to the contract at the others expense and its purpose was not to apportion the loss between the parties.xx As McKendrick points out, this interpretation is not without challenge, and an alternative analysis is that the Act is designed to provide a flexible machinery for the adjustment of loss.xxi The purpose of the Act is therefore still in doubt. There are more specific criticisms levelled by McKendrick.xxii Whilst they cannot all be addressed here, it is important to identify the primary difficulties. Firstly, s.1(2) does not cover money paid after the event; the payor would have to resolve this at common law where there is little respite. Secondly, it is difficult to ascertain how loss will be calculated between the parties. If the payor has given the payee à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½20,000 which has been expended in performance of the contract, how much can the payee retain? McKendrick states that the subsection is not well drafted and that inadequate consideration has been given to the apportionment of any losses.xxiii Section 1(3) is the most controversial part of the Act and was critical in the case of BP v Hunt. The word benefit has been given an unnatural and artificial meaning, and the way in which Goff J resolved the matter in BP can lead to less desirable results. The value of the benefit and the just sum to be awarded is totally left to the discretion of the trial judge, which is liable to lead to inconsistency in the future.xxiv Ultimately this creates further uncertainty and ambiguity, making it difficult for parties to determine their actual remedies under the Act. Force majeure clauses As the law currently stands, it is uncertain as to whether the courts will discharge a contract on the ground of frustration due to a supervening event, and if they do, the remedial position of the parties is entirely unclear. Parties can reduce this uncertainty by agreeing on a list of events beforehand which constitute force majeure. Parties can also widen the parameters of these clauses beyond the scope that the courts would ordinarily allow. For instance, price fluctuations would not ordinarly be held to frustrate a contract in the courts, whereas parties can state in their contract that it will constitute a force majeure event. The importance of force majeure clauses cannot be overstated in the drafting of commercial contracts. In Bremer Handelsgesellschaft mbH v Vanden Avenne-Izegem PVBA,xxv Mocatta J believed that there was much to be said for Counsels submission that there was no room for the doctrine of frustration to apply when elaborate provisions, by way of force majeure clauses, were in place. During uncertain economic times, businesses will try to rely on the doctrine of frustration and force majeure clauses inserted into their contracts that provide for such events. This was the case in the wake of the terrorist attacks in the US in 2001, when businesses sought to discharge their contractual obligations through reliance on force majeure clauses.xxvi However, they will only be successful if their provision has the clear intention of resolving the consequences that arise out of the supervening event. If a provisional clause is not drafted to properly account for the event, the court will not give it affect. In Thames Valley Power Ltd v. Total Gas Power Ltd xxvii the defendants entered into a 15-year contract with the claimant for the supply of gas, which contained a force majeure clause. In July 2005, due to the sharp increase in gas prices, the defendants informed the claimants that this constituted a force majeure event and they would be unable to supply the gas until the prices fell. The claimants argued that the increase in prices did not fall into the scope of force majeure, and the event had not rendered performance impossible; it merely made it less profitable. In his judgement, Clarke J ruled that the force majeure clause which the defendants relied upon did not sufficiently cover the increase in gas prices. He cited another force majeure case, Tennants Lancashire Limited v Wilson CS Co Ltd, where Lord Loreburn observed that: The argument that a man can be excused from performance of his contract when it becomes commercially impossible seems to me to be a dangerous contention which ought not to be admitted unless the parties plainly contracted to that effect.xxviii In order to make sure that every event is covered under force majeure, some parties draft the clauses in very general terms. However, the courts will not necessarily interpret a force majeure clause to cover every event, despite the wording of the contract. In Metropolitan Water Board v Dick Kerr Coxxix a contract to build a reservoir in six years contained a provision that allowed for an extension in the event of time delays, whatsoever and howsoever occasioned. The courts interpreted this to mean that it gave the builder a period of grace for non-frustrating delays. It did not cover the actual event government intervention in WWI which required him to halt work and sell his construction plant. Hence the builders plea of frustration was successful. Therefore, force majeure clauses can be seen to cover events that have the possibility of resolution within a short period of time, but obviously cannot cover an event that renders performance impossible. When the court rules that a contract is frustrated, it is terminated. As Treitel notes, this inflexibility leads to all or nothing solutions,xxx which is often not what the parties want. Provisional clauses therefore have the further benefit of allowing the parties to stipulate a modification to the contract, allowing for extra time or for an alternative mode of performance at an additional cost. Conclusion The effect of a supervening event is to throw a contract off course. Rather than mitigate the ensuing uncertainty that is caused, the law in its current state creates further ambiguity. The indefinite wording of the 1943 Act creates further uncertainty when it comes to the remedial standpoint of the parties. As McKendrick observes, it is perhaps fortunate that a frustrated contract is a comparative rarity in commercial practice and so the deficiencies in the Act [] rarely come to light.xxxi In light of this, force majeure and hardship clauses provide for a degree of certainty and flexibility in commercial contracting. Not only can parties make provisions for what constitutes a force majeure event, but they can stipulate the consequences of such an event. With contracting parties realising these benefits, it is common for even small businesses to incorporate provisional clauses into their agreements. However, contracting parties must be diligent in drafting these clauses so that they sufficiently account for the supervening event, otherwise they may find that they are still subject to the courts determination and the uncertainty that ensues.

Strategic Planning Framework Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Strategic Planning Framework - Research Paper Example up to the standards as the company is losing its grip over its market share as well as the position it had achieved earlier in the market based on the quality of its products and services. The two main reasons behind these situations are: 1. High employee turnover rate; 2. Decreased customer satisfaction. Let us discuss these problems in some detail in order to know how these problems are affecting the overall business of the company. 1. High Employee Turnover Rate As Beam (n.d.) states, â€Å"employee turnover is the process of replacing one worker with another for any reason† (p. 1). High employee turnover means that the company is not able to retain its employees. It is a fact that experienced employees yield higher levels of productivity as compared to employees who join the company as fresh employees. The reasons behind high employee turnover ratio are usually improper employee recruitment and lack of a proper incentive plan. When we inquired the managers of NexGen, we ca me to know that they had started hiring less experienced employees in order to cut down the cost of retaining experienced employees. They also took this step as the result of some resignations from their key employees. However, this strategy of the company is proving unsuccessful because new employees are not able to show good performance, and their managers fire them from their jobs after a very short span of time. Another reason that we came to know through analysis was the lack of a proper incentive plan to retain high performing employees. The incentive plan could have motivated the employees to remain associated with the company instead of resigning from their positions. A couple of people who had worked for the company earlier revealed that the company did not use to reward them for their... We would recommend the managers of the company to implement all solutions without any delay if they want to succeed in this current downscale economy. Although the solutions may take some time in proper implementation, the process should be started right away in order to save the company from bearing more loss. For example, the hiring of skilled employees may take a couple of months, but the effects on the company will be long lasting. Similarly, implementation of an incentive plan would need a proper financial analysis. Managers of the company would have to analyze all financial factors before designing the plan in order to save the company from suffering extra costs of developing and implementing the incentive plan. Implementation of a quality management system also needs planning. Managers of the company need to set guidelines and train employees to follow those rules while developing any new product. Introduction of after-sale service plan can be done right away as no time-taking planning is needed to take such steps. The managers just need to hire some outdoor service employees to implement this step.